History of Julian

Julian, often referred to as Julian the Apostate, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 361 to 363 AD. His full name was Flavius Claudius Julianus, and his nickname, "the Apostate," reflects the fact that he was the last non-Christian ruler of the Roman Empire. Julian's rule is often studied for its attempt to restore Paganism as the primary religion of the empire and roll back the spread of Christianity, which had gained substantial influence since Constantine the Great.

Julian was born in 331 AD in Constantinople to Julius Constantius and Basilina. He was a member of the Constantinian dynasty, which had adopted Christianity after Constantine the Great converted to the religion and issued the Edict of Milan in 313, granting religious tolerance throughout the empire. As a member of the imperial family, Julian was immersed in the political machinations of the time from a young age, especially after the assassination of his father in the aftermath of Constantine's death. As a result, Julian's early years were spent in Cappadocia and then in Athens, where he received an education heavily influenced by Greek philosophy and Neoplatonism, as well as a smattering of Christian teachings.

His education brought him into contact with Neoplatonic philosophers and texts, which ignited his interest in Paganism. His exposure to a range of philosophical teachings would later inform his religious policies and imperial aspirations. However, initially, Julian had little expectation or desire to rule. It was only after the death of his half-brother, Constantius II, that Julian found himself thrust into a position of political power. Constantius II had appointed Julian as Caesar in 355, responsible for the western provinces; Julian proved an able and charismatic military leader, notably achieving success against Germanic tribes, which improved his popularity with both the army and his fellow Romans.

The turning point in Julian's political career came with his acclaimed elevation to Augustus by his troops in Lutetia (modern-day Paris) in 360. Tensions between Constantius II and Julian had been simmering as Julian's army refused to be redeployed east to support Constantius in his campaigns, prompting a brief civil conflict between the two that ended with Constantius' sudden death in 361. With Constantius gone, Julian assumed full control of the Roman Empire without bloodshed.

Upon reaching power, Julian's policies took a drastic turn from those of his predecessors. Foremost among his policies was the revival of Paganism and the reduction of Christianity’s influence. He sought to promote classical Roman religious customs and introduced reforms that favored Pagan priests and restored previously confiscated temple properties. His intellectual background led him to view Paganism not simply as a collection of rituals but as a philosophical way of life compatible with Neoplatonism.

Julian's religious position alienated many Christians, but he enacted no systematic persecutions; rather, he implemented a kind of religious pluralism that subtly disadvantaged Christians by excluding them from teaching positions and financial support. He believed that Christianity was detrimental to Roman unity and moral fiber, striving instead to cultivate a more traditional Roman ethos.

In addition to his religious endeavors, Julian was a reformer who keenly focused on administrative efficiency and military reform. His short reign saw efforts to reduce the corruption that plagued the imperial bureaucracy. Julian cut back the lavish court expenditures and sought to consolidate his military gains by strengthening frontier defenses. His military acumen was once again demonstrated in his campaign against Persia, a long-standing adversary to Rome.

In 363, Julian embarked on a campaign against the Sassanian Empire. Although initially successful, his advance into Persian territory overextended his supply lines and eventually met with a significant setback. During a retreat, Julian was wounded in an encounter near Samarra, what is now modern-day Iraq. Some speculate whether he was struck by an enemy or possibly even by one of his own men, which remains a subject of historical curiosity and debate. His untimely death on June 26, 363 AD, at the age of only 31, led to the reestablishment of a Christian leadership with the ascension of Jovian, who reversed Julian’s religious policies.

Julian's short reign marked a final attempt to restore Hellenistic Paganism to the forefront of Roman religious life. He remains a controversial figure; viewed sympathetically by those who cherish Greco-Roman culture and critically by historians focused on his religious policies. Despite his ambitions and reforms, Julian's death sealed the fate of Paganism, as Christianity continued its ascent in influencing Roman, and subsequently European, culture and governance, ultimately cementing its role as the dominant religion of the Roman Empire.

In summary, Julian the Politician was a figure of reform and antithesis, whose influence was much less about the policies themselves, which were quickly overturned, but rather about his remarkable attempt to steer the Roman Empire back to its Pagan roots against the tide of growing Christian dominance. His intellectual pursuits and military endeavors embellished a reign ultimately characterized by his bold stand against what he viewed as the erosion of Roman values.